Introduction
Carbohydrates play a key role in athletic performance – particularly as an energy source. Carbohydrate, in the form of glucose,
does not only fuel active skeletal muscle, but it is also a metabolic fuel for nerve cells and red blood (1). Elite athletes
and exercise physiologists do not solely view carbohydrates as a fuel source, but also study the effects that carbohydrates
have on physique/body composition. Because of advances in nutritional biochemistry, it has been learned that various types
of carbohydrates affect the body differently. Amazingly, some types of carbohydrates are preferentially converted to fat,
raise blood glucose levels to high physiologic levels, and are linked to health problems such as diabetes, obesity, cancer, etc.
(2,3,6,9). Other types of carbohydrates, such as disaccharides and polysaccharides, are not converted to fat easily and are not
considered to be deterrents to good health. Relative to dietary carbohydrate, this article will discuss the differences between
the glycemic index and the glycemic load. Because of its practical application relative to food intake, professionals in the human
performance industry should consider the glycemic load of a food when designing meals, planning recovery nutrition,
and creating specialized diets to enhance body composition.

The Glycemic Index
The glycemic index was developed by researchers from the University of Toronto approximately thirty years ago, and was
primarily used as a tool for diabetics looking to control their blood glucose (blood sugar) levels (7). Today, many other nondiabetic
individuals are also using this index as a way to choose foods to eat for health, weight loss and performance. Relative
to weight loss, several scientific studies have been conducted with the primary intervention being the glycemic index values
of various diets (4,10,11). Specifically, the glycemic index is a numerical ranking of carbohydrate-containing foods based on
their potential to raise blood sugar levels. Carbohydrates that are high on the glycemic index (>70) are quickly digested and
absorbed. These carbohydrates tend to cause a rapid rise in blood glucose and in most cases a quick rise in insulin. Conversely,
carbohydrates that are low on the glycemic index (~55 and below) are more slowly absorbed and subsequently cause
a relatively small increase in blood sugar and insulin. Hence, the glycemic index allows an individual to indirectly estimate
both blood glucose and insulin levels which is not only important for diabetics, but is also important for anyone looking to
control body weight or when determining what type of carbohydrates to ingest prior to and following exercise bouts.

Determining the Glycemic Index of a Food
Researchers measure out a portion of food that contains 50 grams of carbohydrate. For instance, 4 slices of bread, 1 1/4 cups
of rice, 1 1/2 pounds of carrots, and 2 medium apples each contains about 50 grams of available carbohydrate. A food is fed
to a group of test subjects and their blood sugar responses are measured. The test subjects’ blood sugar response to the food
is then compared with their response to eating 50 grams (about 3 tablespoons) of pure glucose. To illustrate this point, oatmeal
will be used as an example. Oatmeal on average is approximately 49 on the glycemic index. When plain oatmeal that
contains 50 grams of carbohydrate is eaten, it will produce an increase in blood sugar approximately 49% of that obtained
when the same amount (i.e. 50 grams) of straight glucose is consumed.

Foods That Have a High Glycemic Index
Generally speaking, foods that rank high on the glycemic index include products made from finely ground flours like bread
and baked goods; processed breakfast cereals (Corn Flakes®); candy (i.e., jelly beans), and baked, mashed, and French fried
potatoes (5). Foods that rank lower on the glycemic index include most vegetables and fruits; sweet potatoes; legumes; minimally
processed whole grains such as thick-cut oatmeal, oat bran, barley, pasta; and dairy products (5).

Glycemic Index vs. Glycemic Load
The glycemic index is not the only tool that can be used to determine the blood glucose response to a particular food item.
The glycemic load uses the glycemic index as well as the actual amount of carbohydrate (i.e. the serving size) to determine
the overall effect that a carbohydrate-containing food has on blood sugar and subsequent insulin values. As mentioned
earlier, the glycemic index compares different food sources that contain carbohydrates of the same quantity (i.e. 50 grams of
glucose is compared to 50 grams of carbohydrate in oatmeal). However, this is not always practical or realistic because many
foods are not consumed in 50 gram (1.76 ounces) portions. The glycemic load is calculated by multiplying the amount of
carbohydrate in a given serving of food by the glycemic index of that same food and then dividing that number by 100.
For example, a boiled potato has a glycemic index of ~101 and a Mars® candy bar has a glycemic index of ~65. However,
the average serving size of a baked potato is about 150 grams (5.3 oz) and contains 17 grams of carbohydrate. Conversely,
a Mars® candy bar serving size is only 60 grams (2.1 oz) but contains 40 grams of carbohydrate. The boiled potato has a
glycemic load of 17, while the Mars bar is 26. Thus, even though the potato has a higher glycemic index, the Mars® candy
bar has a greater effect on blood glucose than the potato even though the size of the Mars® candy bar is less than half that of
the potato. Dr. Jeukendrup, a respected sports nutrition researcher, reports that foods with a glycemic load of > 20 are high,
11-19 are medium, and < 10 are low (8). The following table lists some common foods with their corresponding glycemic
index and glycemic loads.

Conclusion
While both the glycemic index and the glycemic load provide information relative to the impact that carbohydrates have on
the blood sugar and subsequent insulin response, the glycemic load is a more practical scale for reasons mentioned above.
It is also important to realize that both glycemic index and glycemic load only refer to the food eaten alone. When fat or
protein from other foods are added to a meal containing carbohydrates, the total impact of either score goes down. In conclusion,
since carbohydrate intake and its effects on the blood glucose/insulin response are important for the hard training
athlete, one should consider utilizing the glycemic load to assist in making carbohydrate food choices.

References

Bill Campbell, PhD, CSCS

Cortisol is a hormone in a group of steroids commonly referred to as glucocorticoids. Cortisol is a hormone produced by the adrenal gland as a part of your daily hormonal cycle. However, it is also a key hormone involved in the body’s response to stress, both physical and emotional.  Cortisol increases blood sugar levels, increases blood pressure, and suppresses the immune system, which is part of the body’s fight-or-flight response that is essential for survival. Your hypothalamus, via the pituitary gland, directs the adrenal glands to secrete both cortisol and adrenaline.

Does stress affect eating, weight, and where fat is distributed on the body? This is a question that has begged an answer from experts for many years. The body makes cortisol to help us handle stress. When stress goes up, cortisol levels go up. And it's often repeated that obese people have higher cortisol levels than lean people.

Cortisol has widespread actions which help restore homeostasis after stress, including increasing production of glucose from protein to quickly increase the body’s energy during stressful times.

However, cortisol has a two-fold effect on fat. When the stress first occurs, fat is broken down to supply the body with a rapid source of energy. When we experience something stressful, our brains release a substance known as corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which puts the body on alert and sends it into "fight or flight" mode. As the body gears up for battle, the pupils dilate, thinking improves, and the lungs take in more oxygen. But something else happens as well: Our appetite is suppressed, and the digestive system shuts off temporarily. CRH also triggers the release of the hormones adrenaline and cortisol, which help mobilize carbohydrate and fat for quick energy. When the immediate stress is over, the adrenaline dissipates, but the cortisol lingers to help bring the body back into balance. And one of the ways it gets things back to normal is to increase our appetites so we can replace the carbohydrate and fat we should have burned while fleeing or fighting.

Your body assumes you have just physically exerted yourself, for example running from a lion, and need to restock your reserves by eating a lot of carbohydrates or fatty food that can easily be stored as fat. In reality, you are probably still sitting in your car or at your desk, still fuming and stressed out.

This is where the potential second effect of cortisol comes into play.  Experts now believe that the problem for many of us is being in a constant state of stress. Exposure to cortisol over the long term can lead to weight gain, as your appetite and insulin levels are continuously increased.

It is generally suggested that stress-induced cortisol weight is usually gained around the waistline, because fat cells in that area are more sensitive to cortisol. The fat cells in your abdomen are richer in stress hormone receptors, are particularly sensitive to high insulin, and are very effective at storing energy – more so than fat cells you would find in other areas of the body. This is the most dangerous place to gain weight, as it can lead to metabolic syndrome, diabetes, and heart disease.

If we do accept that chronic stress and elevated cortisol may be factors in weight problems, what can you do if you want to reduce cortisol?

First, focus on becoming stress resistant. One of the best things to reduce stress and improve insulin sensitivity, for example, is getting regular exercise. Exercise not only helps promote weight loss by burning calories, but is also beneficial because it helps neutralize stress and its effects, which in turn helps you keep weight off.

Second, practice stress reduction techniques such as meditation, yoga, and breathing exercises. Improving time management can also be essential to reducing stress in one’s hectic lifestyle.

Third, how a person perceives stressful situations is also important. n. Hence, stress makes life difficult, but our reaction to it is important as well.

References

1. Talbot S, Kramer W. The Cortisol Connection. 1st ed. Berkeley, CA: Publishers Group West, 2002.
2. Epel ES, McEwen B, Seeman T, Matthews K, Castellazzo G, Brownell KD, Bell J, Ickovics JR. Stress and body shape: stress-induced cortisol secretion is consistently greater among women with central fat. Psychosom Med. 2000 Sep-Oct;62(5):623-32.
3. Smart JL, Tolle V, Low MJ. Glucocorticoids exacerbate obesity and insulin resistance in neuron-specific proopiomelanocortin-deficient mice. J Clin Invest.2006 Feb;116(2):495-505. Epub 2006 Jan 26. Erratum in: J Clin Invest. 2006 Mar;116(3):842.
4. Salehi M, Ferenczi A, Zmoff B. Obesity and Cortisol Status. Horm Metab Res 2005;37:193-197.
5. Prezio JA, Carreon G, Clerkin E, Meloni CR, Kyle LH, Canary JJ. Influence of Body Composition on Adrenal Function in Obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1964;24:481-485.
6. Streeten DH, Stevenson CT, Dalakos TG, Nicholas JJ, Dennick LG, Fellerman H. The diagnosis of hypercortisolism. Biochemical criteria differentiating patients from lean and obese normal subjects and from female on oral contraceptives. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1969;29:1191-211.
7. Jessop DS, Dallman MF, Flaming D, Lightman SL. Resistance to glucocorticoid feedback in obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:4109-4114.
8. Hellman L, Nakada F, Curti J Et al. Cortisol is secreted episodically by normal man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1970;30:411-422.
9. Chalew SA, Nagel H, Burt D, Edwards CR. The integrated concentration of cortisone is reduced in obese children. J Pediatr Endocrinal Metab 1997; 10: 287-290.
10. Chalew SA, Lozano RA, Armour KM, Zadik Z, Kowarski AA. Reduction of plasma cortisol levels in childhood obesity. J Pediatr 1991; 119: 778-780.
11. Strain GW, Zumoff B, Kream J, Strain JJ, Levin J, Fukushia D. Sex difference in the influence of obesity on the 24 hr mean plasma concentration of cortisol. Metabolism 1982: 31: 209-212.

What are Triglycerides?

Triglycerides are the form in which most fat exists within the body. Triglycerides in the blood are derived from fats eaten in foods or are made in the body from other sources like carbohydrates. Triglycerides can accumulate on the walls of the arteries and contribute to buildup of atherosclerotic plaque.  Elevated blood triglycerides are involved in the deadly Metabolic Syndrome that pre-disposes individuals to Type 2 Diabetes and it is related to Vascular Complications.

Triglycerides are the major constituent of "Abdominal Fat".  Excess blood triglycerides induce an accumulation of undesired body fat ( especially in the visceral Abdominal Region). Abdominal obesity is a major risk factor for heart attack, stroke, dementia, and a host of chronic inflammatory diseases.

The American Heart Association website says triglycerides levels up to 100 MG/DL are safe, but Optimal fasting triglycerides are UNDER 100 MG/DL of blood. More recent studies are suggesting that fasting triglycerides should be even lower.

source: life extension study on Tocotrenols

The body mass index (BMI), or Quetelet index, is a heuristic measure of body weight based on a person's weight and height. Though it does not actually measure the percentage of body fat, it is used to estimate a healthy body weight based on a person's height, assuming an average body composition.

Due to its ease of measurement and calculation, it is the most widely used diagnostic tool to identify weight problems within a population, usually whether individuals are underweight, overweight or obese. It was invented between 1830 and 1850 by the Belgian polymath Adolphe Quetelet during the course of developing "social physics".

Body mass index is defined as the individual's body weight divided by the square of his or her height. The formula universally used in medicine produce a unit of measure of kg/m2. BMI can also be determined using a BMI chart, which displays BMI as a function of weight (horizontal axis) and height (vertical axis) using contour lines for different values of BMI or colors for different BMI categories.